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<TABLE cellpadding=5 cellspacing=0 width="90%"><TR><TD CLASS="chtitle">
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<CENTER><B>CHAPTER 11.&nbsp; TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS</B></CENTER></FONT></TD></TR></TABLE><BR>
<BR>

<!--page 125-->
<A NAME="1"></A>
<CENTER><B>1. Direct objects</B></CENTER><BR>

Most of the verbs examined so far have been in the <B>Active Voice</B>. When
a verb is in the Active Voice, the subject of the verb refers to the person
or thing <U>performing</U> the action described by the verb; and the <B>object</B> of
the verb refers to the person or thing <U>receiving</U> the action described by
the verb.<BR>
<BR>
In the following examples, the objects of the verbs are printed in bold
type.<BR>
e.g. He read the <B>book</B>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I did not see the <B>balloon</B>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; They ate the <B>potatoes</B> quickly.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; She rode her <B>bicycle</B> along the sidewalk.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; Do we understand <B>it</B>?<BR>
<BR>
In these sentences, the verbs <B>read</B>, <B>did see</B>, <B>ate</B>, <B>rode</B> and <B>do understand</B> are in the Active Voice; and the words <B>book</B>, <B>balloon</B>,
<B>potatoes</B>, <B>bicycle</B> and <B>it</B> are the objects of the verbs. These
objects are said to be <B>direct</B> objects, because they refer to things
which receive directly the actions described by the verbs.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex11.html#1">Exercise 1</A>.<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="2"></A>
<CENTER><B>2. Lay and Lie, Raise and Rise, and Set and Sit</B></CENTER><BR>

Verbs which take an object are usually called <B>transitive</B> verbs. Verbs
which do not take an object are usually called <B>intransitive</B> verbs.<BR>
<BR>
Many English verbs can be used either intransitively or transitively.
For instance, in the sentence <B>Most birds can fly,</B> the verb <B>to fly</B>
is intransitive, since it is used without an object. But in the
sentence <B>This pilot will fly the plane,</B> the verb <B>to fly</B> is transitive, since it takes the object <B>plane</B>.<BR>
<BR>
However, some English verbs can be used only intransitively. 
<A NAME="2in"></A>
A few
pairs of verbs should be noted. The two verbs of each pair have similar
meanings, but one of the verbs can take an object, and the other cannot.
In the following table, the verbs labeled <B>intransitive</B> are those which
cannot take an object.<BR>
<BR>
<TABLE  border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0">
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD><U><B>Infinitive</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Simple Past</B></U></TD><TD><U><B>Past Participle</B></U></TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; <U>Transitive</U>:</TD><TD>&nbsp; to lay</TD><TD>&nbsp; laid</TD><TD>&nbsp; laid</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; <U>Intransitive</U>:</TD><TD>&nbsp; to lie</TD><TD>&nbsp; lay</TD><TD>&nbsp; lain</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; <U>Transitive</U>:</TD><TD>&nbsp; to raise</TD><TD>&nbsp; raised</TD><TD>&nbsp; raised</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; <U>Intransitive</U>:</TD><TD>&nbsp; to rise</TD><TD>&nbsp; rose</TD><TD>&nbsp; risen</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; </TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD><TD>&nbsp;</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; <U>Transitive</U>:</TD><TD>&nbsp; to set</TD><TD>&nbsp; set</TD><TD>&nbsp; set</TD></TR>
<TR><TD>&nbsp; <U>Intransitive</U>:</TD><TD>&nbsp; to sit</TD><TD>&nbsp; sat</TD><TD>&nbsp; sat</TD></TR>
</TABLE><BR>
<BR>

<!--page 126-->
Particular care must be taken not to confuse the verbs <B>to lay</B> and <B>to
lie</B>, since, as shown above, the Simple Past of the verb <B>to lie</B> has
the same form as the bare infinitive of the verb <B>to lay</B>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2a"></A>
<B>a. To Lay and To Lie</B><BR>
<B>To lay</B> is a transitive verb, which can take an object. The following
examples illustrate the use of the Present Continuous, Simple Past, and
Present Perfect tenses of the verb <B>to lay</B>. The verbs are underlined,
and the objects of the verbs are printed in bold type.<BR>
e.g. I <U>am laying</U> the <B>table</B>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; He <U>laid</U> a <B>bet</B> on the white horse.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The hen <U>has laid</U> an <B>egg</B>.<BR>
<BR>
<B>To lie</B> is an intransitive verb, which cannot take an object. The
following examples illustrate the use of the Present Continuous, Simple Past, and Present Perfect tenses of the verb <B>to lie</B>.<BR>
e.g. She <U>is lying</U> on the sofa.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; We <U>lay</U> on the beach in the sun.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; He <U>has lain</U> in bed for a week.<BR>
<BR>
In these examples, it might appear that the words <B>sofa</B>, <B>beach</B>, and
<B>bed</B> act as objects of the verb <B>to lie</B>. However, this is not the case.<BR>
<BR>
Not only verbs, but also <B>prepositions</B> have the ability to take
objects. A few commonly used English prepositions are <B>at</B>, <B>by</B>,
<B>for</B>, <B>from</B>, <B>in</B>, <B>of</B>, <B>on</B>, <B>to</B> and <B>with</B>. Prepositions will
be discussed in detail in a later chapter.<BR>
<BR>
In the examples above, <B>sofa</B>, and <B>beach</B> are objects of the preposition <B>on</B>; and <B>bed</B> is the object of the preposition <B>in</B>.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex11.html#2">Exercise 2</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<A NAME="2b"></A>
<B>b. To Raise and To Rise</B><BR>
<B>To raise</B> is a transitive verb, which can take an object. The following
examples illustrate the use of the Present Continuous, Simple Past, and
Present Perfect tenses of the verb <B>to raise</B>. The verbs are underlined,
and the objects of the verbs are printed in bold type.<BR>
e.g. She <U>is raising</U> <B>poodles</B>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; He <U>raised</U> the <B>window</B>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; They <U>have raised</U> a <B>crop</B> of wheat.<BR>
<BR>
<B>To rise</B> is an intransitive verb, which cannot take an object. The
following examples illustrate the use of the Present Continuous, Simple
Past, and Present Perfect tenses of the verb <B>to rise</B>.<BR>
e.g. The moon <U>is rising</U> in the east.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; They <U>rose</U> to the occasion.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; The temperature <U>has risen</U> by five degrees.<BR>
<BR>
In these sentences, the verbs have no objects. The words <B>east</B>,
<B>occasion</B> and <B>degrees</B> are the objects of the prepositions <B>in</B>,
<B>to</B> and <B>by</B>.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex11.html#3">Exercise 3</A>.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 127-->
<A NAME="2c"></A>
<B>c. To Set and To Sit</B><BR>
<B>To set</B> is a transitive verb, which can take an object. The following
examples illustrate the use of the Present Continuous, Simple Past, and
Present Perfect tenses of the verb <B>to set</B>. The verbs are underlined,
and the objects of the verbs are printed in bold type.<BR>
e.g. They <U>are setting</U> a <B>record.</B><BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; We <U>set</U> the <B>jars</B> on a shelf.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; <U>Have</U> you <U>set</U> the <B>date</B> for your trip?<BR>
<BR>
<B>To sit</B> is an intransitive verb, which cannot take an object. The
following examples illustrate the use of the Present Continuous, Simple
Past, and Present Perfect tenses of the verb <B>to sit</B>.<BR>
e.g. They <U>are sitting</U> by the front steps.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I <U>sat</U> at my desk for an hour.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; You <U>have sat</U> on the couch all afternoon.<BR>
<BR>
In these sentences, the verbs have no objects. The words <B>steps</B>, <B>desk</B>,
and <B>couch</B> are the objects of the prepositions <B>by</B>, <B>at</B> and <B>on</B>.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex11.html#4">Exercises 4</A> and <A HREF="gramex11.html#5">5</A>.
<P>
&nbsp;<BR>

<A NAME="3"></A>
<CENTER><B>3. Indirect objects</B></CENTER><BR>

In addition to taking direct objects, some verbs also take <B>indirect</B>
objects. In the following examples, the direct objects are printed in
bold type, and the indirect objects are underlined.
<BR>
e.g. We gave the <U>child</U> a <B>toy</B>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; I sent the <U>man</U> the <B>information</B>.<BR>
<BR>
In these examples, the words <B>child</B> and <B>man</B> are said to be the
indirect objects of the verbs <B>gave</B> and <B>sent</B>. Indirect objects
refer to things which receive indirectly the actions described by
the verbs. In the above examples, the words <B>toy</B> and <B>information</B>
are the direct objects of the verbs.<BR>
<BR>
Indirect objects usually refer to living things.<BR>
<BR>
It is possible for a sentence containing an indirect object to be
rewritten by placing a preposition before the indirect object. When
this is done, the original indirect object can be regarded either as
the indirect object of the verb, or as the object of the preposition.<BR>
<BR>
For example, the sentence <B>We gave the child a toy,</B> can be rewritten as
follows:<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; We gave a <B>toy</B> to the <U>child</U>.<BR>
In the rewritten sentence, <B>child</B> can be regarded either as the indirect
object of the verb <B>gave</B>, or as the object of the preposition <B>to</B>.<BR>
<BR>
The following examples illustrate the position of the indirect object in
a sentence. The direct object, <B>toy</B>, is printed in bold type, and the
indirect object, <B>child</B>, is underlined.
<BR>
e.g. We gave the <U>child</U> a <B>toy</B>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; We gave a <B>toy</B> to the <U>child</U>.<BR>
<BR>

<!--page 128-->
When an indirect object is <U>not</U> preceded by a preposition, the indirect
object must be placed <U>before</U> the direct object. Thus, in the sentence
<B>We gave the child a toy,</B> the indirect object <B>child</B> is placed before
the direct object <B>toy</B>.<BR>
<BR>
However, when an indirect object <U>is</U> preceded by a preposition, the
indirect object must be placed <U>after</U> the direct object. In the sentence
<B>We gave a toy to the child</B>, the indirect object <B>child</B> is preceded
by the preposition <B>to</B>. Therefore, the indirect object, <B>child</B> is
placed after the direct object <B>toy</B>.<BR>
<BR>
The object which is placed last in a sentence tends to receive greater
emphasis than the object which is placed first. Thus, the word order of
a sentence can be varied in order to give greater emphasis to one object
or the other. For instance, in the sentence <B>We lent the teacher a book</B>, 
the direct object <B>book</B> is slightly emphasized. However, in the
sentence <B>We lent a book to the teacher</B>, the indirect object <B>teacher</B>
is emphasized.<BR>
<BR>
See <A HREF="gramex11.html#6">Exercises 6</A> and <A HREF="gramex11.html#7">7</A>.<BR>
<BR>
A few English verbs, such as <B>to describe</B>, <B>to distribute</B>, <B>to explain</B>
and <B>to say</B>, can take an indirect object <U>only</U> when the indirect object
is preceded by a preposition. In the following examples, the direct
objects are printed in bold type, and the indirect objects are underlined.<BR>
e.g. He described his <B>experiences</B> to the <U>reporters</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; They distributed the <B>leaflets</B> to their <U>friends</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; We explained the <B>situation</B> to the <U>participants</U>.<BR>
&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; She said <B>something</B> to her <U>teacher</U>.<BR>
<BR>
These verbs cannot take an indirect object which immediately follows the
verb. One reason for this may be to avoid creating sentences which are
ambiguous or confusing. For instance, a sentence which began with the
words <B>He described the reporters...</B>  would create the impression that
it was the reporters who were being described. When <B>the reporters</B> is
preceded by the preposition <B>to</B>, there is no ambiguity.

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